The Archipelago: Italy Since 1945 - John Foot

 An excellent, well-written account of Italian politics and society post-war.  Covers the social conflicts between workers/Communist party and Industrialists/Christian Democrats/ex-Fascists through the 40s, 50s and 60s.  Also includes a specific discussion of how the Americans worked to influence the first post-war elections to ensure the Communist party did not win the national elections.  (Both of these preceding points seem to be mostly forgotten by most Italians I speak with, even the educated ones.)  Chronicles the continual ties between governments and the mafia.  Excellent account of the emergence of the Lega, which has been around as a separatists, racist party for decades.  The biggest surprise was the account of Berlusconi and the Berlusconi years.  Berlusconi was basically a Trump without Twitter.  Same use of media to bypass the party system and speak directly to an alienated popular base.  Same subversion of the party system to make it a one man show.  Same view of government as a tool for furthering his business interests and those of his close allies.  Same attempts to change the laws to avoid persecution for his corrupt business dealings.  

In the end, it is a pretty hopeless picture, with a cross-party group of elites at all levels of business and government, including the judicial system, that work to protect each other and maintain their positions of power.    

This Is Not Propaganda: Adventures in the War Against Reality - Peter Pomerantsev

  A complex exploration of how our communication has moved away from facts and reality to the fantasy worlds of Facebook and Twitter.  Looks at social and economic causes.
Some interesting examinations of how totalitarian forces have coopted the language and gestures of the Left to counter their influence.
  Some scary case studies of how Facebook and Twitter have been used by would-be dictators and extremists to control people's perception of reality, to win elections and to create riots and commit murder.

  Worth rereading, as ideas are quite complex and wide-ranging.

How to Lose a Country - Ece Temelkuran

Subtitled "The 7 Steps from Democracy to Dictatorship"
    Brilliant book chronicling Turkey's slide into its current dictatorship/autocracy, with asides looking at the same process in other countries - U.S., Hungary, Russia, Poland, Britain.
She brings up the point that this structure of government can actually be called a form of mafia government.
     A good companion read to "How Fascism Works".
    Temelkuran points out some interesting techniques used by would-be leaders, particularly their use of the news cycle and the outrageous statement as a means to controlling the media's and people's attention, directing it towards controversial topics as the government gets on with some other agenda that it doesn't want attention on.
    A very disturbing book.  You have to worry about your own homeland heading in that direction. So far, Temelkuran has focused on the actions of the would-be dictator as he moves towards absolute power, but I am interested in the ground, the socio-political situation that makes his rise possible, that he exploits on his way up.  My sense is the fertile ground lies in groups that see themselves excluded from the benefits of society as it stands.  And it has to be a significant group in terms of numbers.  When I consider Turkey, Russia and Hungary, it seems that desperate poverty is certainly one of those conditions of exclusion.  Hence, the aspiring fascist/dictator groups get the support of these poor people by simply giving them some of the basic necessities of life for free. (Same thing was done in Egypt by the Muslim Brotherhood - these poor people may not buy into the religious or nationalist message, but they sure appreciate the food and other necessities.)  Or by creating low-paying fake jobs for them - as Orban is doing in Hungary.  This, however, is not one of the basic techniques in the U.S. - their mythology is too strongly against any kind of social welfare...
So you can conclude here that increased income inequality, either within society as a whole or regionally, is one key element that helps prepare the ground for the rise of autocrats.
     Another group to exploit would seem to be the people who see themselves excluded for religious or cultural reasons.  In Turkey, the religious factor is obviously at play in several ways.  First in the former dominance of a secular elite.  Second, in some discriminatory laws around religious clothing that excluded people from higher education and government positions.  Cultural exclusion can also be seen. At play, I suspect, was also a disdain towards the people and society of smaller, more traditional Anatolian towns and villages, which also suffered, coincidentally from higher levels of poverty.  A would-be dictator gets their support by appearing to take them seriously, by speaking their cultural language, by granting them respect.  Which "respect" also seems to be a big selling point for Trump in the eyes of many mid-western and small town Americans (who also experience higher levels of poverty and joblessness.)
    A third issue also seems to be exploitable by would-be autocrats, the issue of "the other", of immigrants, (or of the "foreign" E.U regulations in some European countries).  It is essentially a reverse side of cultural exclusion  - the fear of becoming a cultural stranger in your own country due to immigrant culture or culture imposed from outside. This is the issue that can be used with the middle-class, secular citizen. This trope is being exploited in many countries, but alone it doesn't seem to get the would-be autocrat too far.  Economic exclusion and cultural exclusion seem to be more powerful issues to exploit.

    The other interesting idea she brings up, which is peculiar to our current technology and era, is the idea of the mob - how harsh it can be, how dangerous, how beyond reason.  In situations like that of Turkey (and the U.S.) Twitter etc. essentially function as tools for the formation of mobs at lightening speed.  The mob follows you everywhere because it infiltrates your online life.  It can also easily track your address, your family and connections.  This is a new and very scary tool for enforcing conformism and for silencing dissent through fear.

How Democracies Die - Steven Levitsky & Daniel Ziblatt

A very interesting, concise and well-written look at the phenomenon of the elected officials who slide their democratic systems into what is essentially a dictatorship.
The authors clearly outline four essential elements, though every "elected" dictator doesn't necessarily meet all four criteria.
- disregard for the constitution and the value of elections
- willingness to use violence
- delegitimizing of the opposition
- highjacking the institutions of government and the institutions that provide checks and balances

As they look at these points, they draw clear illustrations of the tactics from various historical and present-day scenarios:  Hitler, Putin, Erdogan, Marcos, Chavez, amongst others.

All of this in the first quarter (or third) of the book.  The rest of the book is taken up with an examination of how these elements have played out within the American system at various historical points, including most recently, Trump.  (I didn't read this section - seemed to be of more interest to Americans specifically.)

Twenty-five Lectures on Modern Balkan History - Steven W. Sowards

A series of lectures from a university course on the internet:  http://staff.lib.msu.edu/sowards/balkan/

A good general overview from a prof. at an American university - worth noting, as there is less chance of a nationalistic bias, or an underlying ethnic agenda.
Sowards begins with an attempt to find a definition for the term "Balkan" - what exactly is different about this area that sets it apart from Western Europe. 
He mentions how the mountainous terrain tends to isolate populations and make communication between areas, and with the outside world in general, more difficult. He also mentions that generally poorer soil and dryer climate which affects agricultural output, the source of wealth for much of the period in question.  He sees multi ethnicity as playing a role to a degree, and also in Turkish held areas, a tendency to identify by religious affiliation rather than linguistic or ethnic affiliation, which would otherwise form a base for the development of nationalism.
Repeated wars and suppressed revolts over two or three centuries also played a role in keeping populations low, and rural. 

Economic ideas:
Through the 18th and early 19th century (and later) land formed the basis for wealth.  Elites occupied agricultural land at the will of the Sultan, and land was not inheritable (in theory).  The Sultan worked to keep some kind of balance between rural workers and nobles in terms of taxes etc. As central authority broke down in the course of the later 18th and 19th C., local landlords became independent local centres of power, and worked to expand their land holdings.  They also increased the level of taxation in various forms on peasants working the land.  In the later 18th C, landlords began to increase wealth by selling grain, etc. directly to Western European markets, with several important effects.  First, as the West was wealthier, prices on produce rose, and this caused increased poverty in the Balkans.  Second, because the selling was direct, towns did not grow and benefit from increased commerce, so they remained small and poor, with no developing capital in a middle-class base.  Third, as well as exporting, nobles and wealthy landholders began importing cheaper mass produced goods from the West, putting local artisans and craftsmen out of business, again increasing poverty. 
As central authority collapsed further (including the Habsburgs in northern Balkans), and  revolutions against the Ottomans began to occur, like the ones in Serbia and Greece,  the only real change was who occupied the top landholder positions, changing to local strongmen instead of Ottoman officials.  The system itself remained the same.  (I am reminded here of the accounts of Patrick Leigh Fermor's hide across Central Europe in the early 30's.  You see ghosts of this old landed aristocracy still hanging on in Hungary, etc. in his book.)

The Constant Gardener - John Le Carré

Typical Le Carré - compelling plot, great characters, and at the same time an exploration of a contemporary issue.  The issue this time is 3rd world development, especially in Africa, and also unscrupulous activity by big pharma, hand in hand with local and international elites.  He explores how shady business practices, bribery and complicity on the part of local and foreign governments allows shocking, at times lethal, practices to continue.  Around the edges you also sense how big corporations, large mafia and top end government and political figures always somehow manage to land on their feet with each others assistance, and the rest of us be damned.  Through one of the main characters, he also explores how indifference, keeping one's head down, and misplaced loyalty make so many lesser figures complicit in this kind of immoral and illegal activity.

The Islamic Enlightenment - Christopher de Bellaigue

An interesting look at modernizers and enlightenment figures in Muslim societies from the 1800's on.  He first looks at early figures country by country, and then in the 20th c., switches to a broader perspective as figures and movements become international in influence.  As you read about these figures, you get a sense of how the religious conservatives have fought this movement for the past two centuries.  You also get a sense of how the West's duplicity, naked pursuit of self-interest, and blatant hypocrisy in the region has played into the hands of the conservative religious leaders, discrediting ideas and movements that have any association with the West and the Enlightenment tradition.
A bit too much detail at times, but it is easy to skim over some sections.

In the Shadows of the American Century - Alfred W. McCoy

A well-researched catalogue of all the conditions and geopolitical shifts that are easing the U.S. out of its position of dominance.
- a brief examination of how the US become so powerful after WW II (economics in a fractured world)
- fracturing of social cohesion at home
- American loss of status and credibility through support for oppressive regimes, use of torture, covert operations harmful to the populations of other countries
- over reliance on military threat to force other countries to acquiesce the US lead / interests
- decline in economic performance (education failure, investment failure)
-decline in share of world economic activity as other countries' economic performance grows

The sections on China are very interesting.   They have a completely different approach to foreign relations.  They use their enormous reserves to build infrastructure partnerships with other countries and improve economies for both partners.   Some of the infrastructure projects are huge:  rail lines to Europe,  high speed rail lines to Europe (China to Berlin in 2 days!)  Infrastructure to link Europe, China and Africa in one large trading block. 

McCoy spends time at the beginning of the book exploring an old idea - Central Asia as the strategic key to world dominance.  If you can control or create a network linking this area with Europe, the East and Africa, then you have the dominant economy in the world.  He sees much of China's foreign policy as working towards this goal.

A book to reread, as there are many threads.

Next: Piccolo libro sulla globalizzazione - Alessandro Baricco

Unfortunately, not translated.
Il meglio libro che ho mai letto sulla globalizzazione.  Piccolo, da vero (90 pagine), ama esamina l'essenziale del fenomeno - cos'è, problemi nel disegno nella cultura popolare, effetti postivi e negativi.  Insomma, l'autore non veda un globalizzazione 'pulita' come dica - i problemi della globalizzazione sono i problemi inerenti del capitalismo ama più profondi perché non c'è controlli legali del fatto che e transnazionale come fenomeno.
Ama piuttosto di smettere o disfare la globalizzazione pensa che dobbiamo andare a fondo - una globalizzazione che viene non solo dai banchi e dei manager, ama un gran movimento di globalizzazione dell'umanità - il sogno di un solo mondo.

Un'idea interessante - che la guerra era la globalizzazione del passato; il modo di dare più grande campo di attività ai soldi dei capitalisti.

We Will Not Be Silenced - Robinson & Griffin

Subtitled:  The Academic Repression of Israel's Critics

While I did not read this whole book, I took in parts of it.  It examines the stories of academics who have been blacklisted or had problems because of their academic work which was critical of Israel.  Each victim has submitted an essay on their experience, which can be interesting reading.  What I found more interesting though, were the brief accounts at the beginning of each case, that gives the basic outline of the offending work, and the methods of repression and exclusion used by the concerned organizations and institutions.
Interestingly, most, if not all, of the cases take place in the U.S.

A Concise History of Bosnia - Cathie Carmichael

A well-written over view of Bosnian history from the Middle Ages through to the current situation.  The book has an excellent introduction, with an overview of geography and how the people lived - kind of a sociological overview.
The section on the conflict in the 90s provided (for me) just the right amount of detail about key figures and key events.  The book makes it very clear that the Serbs in Bosnia and their territorial ambitions really fuelled the whole conflict.  Carmichael details how the majority of deaths and the majority of displaced people were Muslim.  The majority of atrocities were also committed by the Serbs.
There is also some space devoted to the ridiculous and completely inadequate response of both the UN and the big international players throughout this whole conflict.  Historical stereotypes and myths about the Balkans played a large role in their inaction which allowed the slaughter to go on for so long.
She also explores near the end of the book the dissonance this conflict created, especially for the younger, educated urban people, who socialized in mixed religious groups and who saw themselves primarily as Yugoslav.  She also makes it clear how quickly the peaceful situation in villages and towns shifted, friendly neighbours suddenly on opposite sides, slitting each others throats, burning each others houses and raping each others families.
Carmichael and others are surprised at how current Bosnia still manages to function on a day to day basis when the brutal realities of the 90s still sit just beneath the surface.

And the Weak Suffer What They Must? Yanis Varoufakis

An excellent look at the current crisis situation in the EU.  Varoufakis discusses some complex economic models but he explains them clearly, so it is possible to learn quite a bit about macroeconomics.  The goes over the Bretton Woods agreement, then the financialization structure that took its place after the Nixon Shock (when the US stopped backing European currencies at a fixed rate convertible to gold).  He also traces the history of the EU idea from its earliest stages as a heavy industry cartel centred in France and Germany.  He sees this origin as a corporate cartel as a major shadow hanging over the further development of the EU as primarily a regulatory economic block for large corporate interests - rules based, technocratic and essentially apolitical, asocial and antidemocratic.
He also looks at some of the shady practices of the EU bank in Frankfort leading up to the collapse of Greece and several other smaller EU countries in 2009.  Predatory loan practices similar to the subprime mortgage crisis in the US.  Banks pushing loans to high risk businesses and countries that could never pay them back, and then cutting the loans up to make derivatives of "shared risk" that were then sold to other EU national banks - who of course threatened to collapse when the true value of the derivatives emerged in the 2009 crisis.
He sees the EU technocrats and governing bodies as suffering from dogmatism which keeps them from seeing both the real nature of the economic problems and also the possible solutions which could be enacted (except that they come from outside accepted dogmatic thinking).
The German political and banking elite comes off quite badly in his analysis.
A complex book, worth rereading.

1177 B.C. - The Year Civilization Collapsed - Eric H. Cline

An interesting overview of the late Bronze age and the mysterious collapse of most of the powerful Bronze Age civilizations/states over a relatively short period of time - Cyprus, Minoans, Mycenae, Hittites, Mitanni.  Egypt struggled, but managed to hang on.   This book is essentially an overview of what is known about the last stages and final collapse of each of these civilizations.  At the time, they created a tightly woven set of interdependent centres, trading food and other essentials (especially tin and other metals used for the creation of weapons) as well as luxury goods for the elites.   They all used some form of writing for record-keeping, for letters and other communication both for government and for business - in fact, Akkadian was the Latin or English of the day.Within a hundred year period though, all of them collapsed, followed by a 300 to 400 year period of reorganization and renewal or establishment of new centres and cultures.

Cline also provides an overview of the various causes that have been considered by various academics.  His conclusion is that the collapse was caused by the interaction of several factors over time.  Earthquakes - the whole area was shaken by numerous earthquakes over a period of several decades, and "earthquake storm", which destroyed several key cities.  Climate change - around 1177 B.C. the whole Mediterranean basin seems to have entered a drier period, which would have lowered ground water and affected agriculture.  Internal revolts - in some places, the elites and power centres within cities seem to have been destroyed.  This may have been related to famine and economic hardship.  Economic disruption - as these centres had developed a highly interdependent economic trade system, disruptions in one part could have serious economic effects on other centres, especially the centres that relied largely on trade for their economy - leading to rebellions also.  Warfare - there is some sign of invasion and destruction of some major centres by marauding bands, perhaps pushed to migrate by drought or economic failure.  These sites are usually not resettled after the destruction.

After this period of collapse, writing systems seem to have fallen out of use, states became much smaller, and economic activity more local and more limited.  As the author points out, this is a pattern that repeats itself in history in every part of the world where large empires come and go.  Interesting to think of ourselves in this cycle...

Winter is Coming - Gary Kasparov

A critical examination of Russia post break up.  Kasparov looks briefly at the chaos of the Yeltsin period and then goes on to examine the rise of Putin and the full realization of the current pirate capitalism system - important moments, underlying causes, etc.  He also looks at how Putin and the pirate system work to involve elites and leaders in other states, especially European, which undermines both the current more democratic systems in Germany and France, etc. and also undermines any criticism of the pirate capitalism system that Putin has set in place.  A good bit of time is also spent examining the weak, even ingratiating response of the U.S., and especially the E.U., to the rise and extension of Putin's system of control.

Kasparov's goal is to raise the alarm about the growth and gradual advancement of this type of system - a system where ruling oligarchs take all and where the people of the country have no value, count for nothing.  A system of pure material gain for the few.

This is a particularly chilling book when you consider current repressive trends in the U.S. and also the recent election cycle which elected an admirer of Putin.

An excellent look at what is sometimes referred to as an "alternate economic system of development".

The Return of History - Jennifer Welsh

This book and author is causing a stir right now, which seems a bit strange to me.  Her arguments only make sense if you were naive enough to buy into Fukuyama's idea of the triumph of liberal capitalism and the western social model after the fall of the Communist bloc.
Welsh's book basically points out that things haven't worked out this way - the barbaric wars, pirate capitalism, and social equality that were always there under the liberal capitalist propaganda / daydream / theoretical ramblings are all still there.  Perhaps the western liberal capitalist worldview was more fantasy than realized - in much of the world with oppressive dictators, grinding poverty, stolen economic resources and slave-like exploitative work conditions (usually supported by some agglomeration of Western powers), the capitalist dream looked pretty much like what Welsh describes for the whole time period.  There is no question of return; it is pretty much a continuation.  The only place these type of conflict points might seem like a return is in western societies themselves, which were relatively protected to maintain public support for the ruling elites.  Now that we have globalization, a happy home public is not really necessary anymore, so things may return to being a little harsher at home...

The one thing that annoyed me is, in her discussion of Putin's new "model of government", she is not blunt enough or harsh enough.  She seems to argue that it is simply a different model of economic and political rules, expectations, pathways.  This is too kind, and I think, a bit naive.  Putin's model is a pirate capitalism model.  His concept of managing the public is to enforce rule of law so he and his cronies can go on pocketing everything they can without being disturbed by the courts, demonstrations, alternate political parties and various other social "disorders".

Perhaps and eyeopener for some, but only those lost in a liberal capitalist dream...

Why Nations Fail - Daron Acemoglu & James A. Robinson

A brilliant analyses of the state of many of the world's countries based on the nature of the economic and political structures within the country, and also the relationship between the two.
They analyze many examples to back up their central ideas.
They analyze both economics and governments based on two polar opposites which are different aspects of the same dichotomy.  Economically, there are inclusive or extractive structures operating.  Politically, there are inclusive or exclusive/oligarchic/dictatorial structures in place.  Inclusive economic structures encourage the dispersion of wealth through society, extractive structures concentrate wealth at the top.  Inclusive structures encourage innovation, economic renewal/evolution and competition.  Exclusive structures discourage investment and promote stasis and stagnation, as change threatens the economic and political elite.  Same for exclusive/inclusive political structures. Oligarchic or dictatorial political structures can promote strong short-term growth as they can dictate where resources, both financial and human, are directed.  The growth does not last, though, because of the tendency towards stasis and economic stagnation to guard positions of privilege.
They analyze various political and economic structures - colonialism and post-colonial government and economics, Stalin, Britain, China, and others - within their parameters, and a lot of it makes sense.  I find I am seeing current events and history in a different light using these concepts.

There are also several sections on a question that has puzzled me for quite some time - how the British ended up developing this particular democratic system in combination with a strong economy.  An interesting read.

Some other ideas worth considering - the importance of a centralized state as a prerequisite for inclusive economic and political structures.  Centralized states can go both ways, but without centralized power there is no chance for inclusive structures.  Everything is just chaos and infighting.

Another is the sheer chance of Britain and Europe developing the systems they now have.  They talk about critical historical junctures, or moments of possible conflict - which forces win is not a forgone conclusion.   If you are lucky, the inclusive forces win and life improves for most people.  If not...
It also makes you realize that the continued existence of inclusive structures and economies is not a given; they can be slowly eroded by small changes in laws and regulations - I think you see this happening to a degree in the U.S. for the past decade or two.

The ideas in this book also make you realize the enormous difficulties of changing exclusive structures in failed and failing states, as these structures often have very deep historical roots.  Our current structures are the result of centuries of slow change and growth - it is close to impossible to impose these in a country in a short time, especially if the elites benefit from the existing exclusive structures.

Another idea that strikes me is that most people on the planet live in extractive economic structures of varying degrees, and with no real political or social power.  I can't imagine what it is like to live in a society where you are seen as something to be exploited (labour, taxes) and where the government has absolutely no care taking function.  Pirate states...

Disordered World - Amin Maalouf

Subtitled "Setting a New Course for the Twenty-first Century"

An interesting analysis of the current Middle East and where we find ourselves in general today. Maalouf has the advantage of having witnessed first hand the breakdown of social order and the slip into chaos in Lebanon.
He looks at how the West has misused its strength and created political and social disasters in countries in the Middle East, and indirectly helped create Islamic fundamentalism.  He has a long chapter on how political leaders everywhere have lost any sense of legitimacy in the eyes of their people by being tied to narrow special interests of all stripes.  He also talks about how a post-ideological world has fractured into a tribal world based on ethnicity, religion, skin colour, wealth.

He finishes the book with some chapters on how to rebuild, on how to reestablish a solidarity that can transcend cultures, ethnicities and religion.  Very idealistic.  Based on values of culture (I am reminded here of the effect on culture and its values of the cataclysm of WW I).
It is a nice vision, but I am more inclined to agree with Zizek's idea that change to the system will only come after collapse into chaos, probably provoked by environmental crises.

I find his non-fiction style a bit heavy and pedantic, but the ideas are interesting.

Worth rereading.

Madness in the Family - William Saroyan

Bit of a forgotten writer.
Some amusing short stories about life and the Armenian community in Fresno in the early and mid-20th c.
His stories seem very light, and not typical of the more angst ridden work of the 20th century, but he actually addresses some deep, almost mystical issues in some of them.  There is almost a sense of Sufi wisdom, or traditional wisdom and social insight of traditional middle-eastern societies.
The influence of his Armenian-ness, his cultural background is what makes him interesting in this book.

Try a couple more.

The Great War for Civilization - Robert Fisk

A book by a reporter who has covered every major and minor war and conflict in the Middle east for decades.  A sickening and depressing look at what went on in Iraq (twice), Algeria (twice), Palestine, Armenia, Afghanistan.  He looks at corruption in U.S. policy, European government policy, Middle-eastern government policy.  He looks at the role of the Saudis in the region.

He catalogues both high level corruption and the sad story of the effects of all of this on the little people in these societies.

Then of course, there are the accounts of the three interviews he did with Osama Bin Ladin - I believe the only journalist from the West to interview Bin Ladin, and certainly the only one to be invited by Bin Ladin to do the interview.

Having witnessed all of that, I don't understand how he can continue on and not be crushed by all the horror and injustice he has witnessed.

A Question of Genocide - Suny, Göçek and Naimark

- subtitled:  Armenians and Turks at the End of the Ottoman Empire

A collection of essays on the Armenian genocide in the early years of the 20th century.  The authors come from a variety of backgrounds - Armenian, Turkish, American, European - and have been having yearly conferences on this topic for some time now, with the emphasis on scholarly research, examining original source material,  and establishing facts and trends as best as possible.  The essays look at a variety of topics:  CUP ideology and policy evolution, the unfolding of events in specific regions, the implication of Germany as Turkish ally in the Armenian genocide, the awareness at the time of these events, the continuity of CUP and Turkish Republic policy with regards to minorities in Turkey, the Assyrian genocide, the level of involvement of Armenians in revolutionary parties and groups, the role of Armenians within Russian ranks as the Russians moved into Eastern Anatolia during the early years of the war, a short political and ideological biography of an important figure in the organization and execution of the Armenian Genocide, continuities between policy towards Greek and Armenian minorities and towards Kurds under Ataturk. There is also discussion at various points of the relations between Kurds and Armenians, and Kurds and Turks during the period.

Some important points made or clarified in the course of the book:

1)  Anti-Christian and anti-Armenian policy dates back to the late 1800's and the reign of Sultan Abdulhamit.  He was very suspicious of minority Christian groups as they presented an opening for foreign powers to meddle in Turkish affairs.  He was actively looking for ways to create an homogeneous society based on religion more so than ethnicity.  During his reign, pogroms against Armenians occurred, arbitrary land confiscations and kidnappings occurred, and Armenians were generally marginalized in the East.

2)  Once the CUP was in power, Armenians tried to get these grievances dealt with through consultation and parliament but they got nowhere.

3)  A small percentage of Armenians were involved in revolutionary activity and supported the invading Russians, but when you consider their treatment over the preceding 20 or 30 years, they didn't really seem to have another option to guarantee security and basic rights.  One essayist points out that the CUP very early on developed a fear of minorities and in a way, through their treatment of these groups, ended up creating the very internal revolutionary groups they had originally feared.

4)  This whole time period needs to be seen against the backdrop of other wars and population displacements that had been going on since the mid-1800s.  Turkey received several waves of Muslim refugees through that period - from the Caucasus due to Russian ethnic cleansing policy, from the Balkans and Greece due to the wars of independence that pushed out Muslim inhabitants.  They had many refugees that needed to be settled.  These refugees also carried anti-Christian feelings due to their own treatment in their original homelands.  Interesting to note that all the leading CUP figures, and Ataturk as well, were all from the areas in the Balkans that produced large groups of Muslim refugees.  It was these refugees who created the myth of the Anatolian homeland of the Turks and then set about shaping the facts on the ground to match the myth, the daydream.

5)  There is no doubt that this genocide (an the other ethnic cleansing affecting different groups) was planned and ordered centrally.  The details were often worked out locally, but it was a central government policy.  It was a policy that developed over time and became progressively more harsh in response to different events and developments, but it was centralized.  It was a part of what was seem as a social engineering project to increase the percentage of Turks in Eastern Anatolia.

6)  In the 1914-1915 period the Kurds were a major instrument in carrying out this policy.  They were used to form the Hamidiye brigades first created under Abdulhamid more or less for this purpose.

7)  Policy plans developed in Ankara in 1925 to "deal with" the Kurds strongly resembled the policy pursued towards the Armenians - expulsion, relocation, cultural and linguistic repression.